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LOGGING & TRANSMIGRATION

Logging in Borneo in the 1980s and 1990s was some of the most intensive the world has ever seen, with 60-240 cubic meters of wood being harvested per hectare versus 23 cubic meters per hectare in the Amazon. According to Curran, more timber exported was from Borneo during that time than from Latin America and Africa combined. In Kalimantan, some 80% of lowlands went to timber concessions, including virtually all its mangrove forests.

By the late 1980s it became clear that Indonesia and Malaysia would soon face a timber crisis due to over-logging. Demand from timber mills was far-outstripping log production in both Malaysia and Indonesia. According to WWF, the Indonesian government responded to resource depletion by establishing a system with three types of industrial timber plantations: Hutan Tanaman Industri (HTI) pertukangan for hardwoods, HTI kayu energy for fuelwood and charcoal, and HTI kayu serat for pulp and paper. Supplying the rapidly expanding pulp and paper industry was the most profitable, so fast-growing plantations were established on previously logged areas as well as virgin forest areas. Plantation owners benefited from downstream timber subsidies including roads, saw mills, and low interest loans granted out of the national reforestation fund. Further, lack of oversight meant that logged forests were rarely replanted — a costly endeavor on heavily degraded lands — leading to additional pressure on remote forests. The State of the Forest* reports that of 3.3 million hectares allocated to HTIs, only 829,000 hectares — or 25 percent — had been replanted by 2000 (* published by Global Forest Watch, Global Forest Watch Indonesia, and World Resources Institute in 2002). The majority of land-clearing for timber plantations in Kalimantan was done by large landholders. Between 1985 and 1997 large landholders cleared nearly 1.7 million hectares of forest for tree crops, while small landholders cleared some 467,000 hectares. In total, tree plantations accounted for 2.1 million hectares (25 percent) of the 8.5 million hectares of forest that were cleared during the period.